Delaying Retirement - Progress and Challenges of Active Ageing in Europe, the United States and Japan
von: Dirk Hofäcker, Moritz Hess, Stefanie König
Palgrave Macmillan, 2016
ISBN: 9781137566973
Sprache: Englisch
396 Seiten, Download: 4892 KB
Format: PDF, auch als Online-Lesen
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Delaying Retirement - Progress and Challenges of Active Ageing in Europe, the United States and Japan
| Preface | 5 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 8 | ||
| Contents | 9 | ||
| Notes to the Contributors | 12 | ||
| 1: Retirement Transitions in Times of Institutional Change: Theoretical Concept | 19 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 19 | ||
| 2 From Early to Late Exit: Empirical Overview | 22 | ||
| 3 Explaining Retirement Transitions | 26 | ||
| 3.1 A Rational-Choice Approach | 26 | ||
| 3.2 Classical Explanations of Early Exit | 29 | ||
| 3.3 Pull Factors | 29 | ||
| 3.4 Push Factors | 30 | ||
| 3.5 Explanations of the Early Exit Reversal | 32 | ||
| 3.6 Maintain Factors | 32 | ||
| 3.7 Need Factors | 33 | ||
| 3.7.1 Theoretical Framework | 34 | ||
| 4 Outlook on This Volume | 36 | ||
| References | 37 | ||
| 2: Trends and Determinants of Retirement Transition in Europe, the USA and Japan: A Comparative Overview | 40 | ||
| 1 Employment Trends | 42 | ||
| 2 Institutional Determinants | 47 | ||
| 2.1 Official and Effective Retirement Age | 47 | ||
| 2.2 Replacement Rates | 49 | ||
| 3 Workplace Determinants | 52 | ||
| 3.1 Training of Older Workers | 52 | ||
| 3.1.1 Working Hours | 54 | ||
| 4 Individual Determinants | 56 | ||
| 4.1 Health | 56 | ||
| 4.2 Education | 58 | ||
| 5 Retirement Preferences | 59 | ||
| 6 Summary and Outlook | 61 | ||
| References | 65 | ||
| 3: Determinants of Retirement and Late Careers in Estonia | 69 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 69 | ||
| 2 Employment Among the Elderly | 70 | ||
| 3 Institutional Context of Old-Age Employment | 73 | ||
| 3.1 Pull Factors | 74 | ||
| 3.2 Push Factors | 75 | ||
| 3.3 Maintain Factors | 78 | ||
| 3.4 Need Factors | 79 | ||
| 4 Workplace Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 80 | ||
| 4.1 Occupational Group | 80 | ||
| 4.2 Economic Sector | 80 | ||
| 5 The Impact of Individual-Level Characteristics | 81 | ||
| 5.1 Gender | 81 | ||
| 5.2 Education | 81 | ||
| 5.3 Previous Work Career | 82 | ||
| 5.4 Health | 82 | ||
| 5.5 Number of Children | 83 | ||
| 5.6 Ethnicity | 83 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 83 | ||
| References | 85 | ||
| 4: Path Dependency Versus New Determinants of Retirement in the Czech Republic | 89 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 89 | ||
| 2 Employment Trends Among Older Workers in the Czech Republic | 91 | ||
| 3 Institutional Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 93 | ||
| 3.1 Unfavorable Institutional Features: Push Factors | 94 | ||
| 3.2 Invitation to Retire: Pull Factors | 95 | ||
| 3.3 The New Active Aging Policies as Need and Maintain Factors | 98 | ||
| 3.4 Need Factors | 98 | ||
| 3.5 Maintain Factors: National Action Plan, European Structural Funds, and Operational Program-Related Initiatives | 100 | ||
| 4 Individual Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 102 | ||
| 5 The Working, Physical, and Social Environment as Mesolevel Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 105 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 106 | ||
| References | 109 | ||
| 5: Retirement in a Context of Strong Institutional Uncertainty and Territorial Diversities: The Case of Italy | 113 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 113 | ||
| 2 The Development of the Employment Rate for Older Workers in Italy | 115 | ||
| 3 Institutional Conditions Affecting Retirement Decisions in Italy | 121 | ||
| 3.1 Push Factors | 122 | ||
| 3.2 Pull Factors | 123 | ||
| 3.3 Need Factors | 125 | ||
| 4 Individual Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 128 | ||
| 5 Workplace Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 132 | ||
| 6 Conclusions | 135 | ||
| References | 136 | ||
| 6: Ebb and Flow of Early Retirement: Pension Reform and Labor Market Participation of Older Workers in Spain | 139 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 139 | ||
| 2 Overview of Employment in the Older Population | 141 | ||
| 3 The Changing Institutional Context of Early Retirement | 145 | ||
| 3.1 Overview of the Spanish Pension System | 145 | ||
| 3.2 Mixed Pull Factors and Strong Push Factors | 147 | ||
| 3.3 Strengthening of Maintain Factors and Adjustment of Pull Factors | 149 | ||
| 3.4 The 2001 and 2002 Decrees to Promote Later Retirement | 149 | ||
| 3.5 Renewal of the Pact of Toledo and the 2007 Law on Social Security | 150 | ||
| 3.6 The 2011 and 2013 Pension Laws in the Context of Deep Crisis | 151 | ||
| 4 Changing Workplace Contexts of Retirement | 154 | ||
| 4.1 Variation by Economic Sector and Gender | 154 | ||
| 4.2 Special Agreements | 155 | ||
| 5 Changing Individual Contexts of Retirement | 158 | ||
| 6 Summary and Implications for Further Research | 159 | ||
| References | 161 | ||
| 7: Germany: A Successful Reversal of Early Retirement? | 163 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 163 | ||
| 2 Trends in the Employment Rate of Older Workers in Germany | 165 | ||
| 3 Institutional Determinants of Retirement Decisions in Germany | 167 | ||
| 3.1 Globalization as Push Factor | 168 | ||
| 3.2 Early Retirement Paths as Pull Factors | 169 | ||
| 3.3 German Active Aging Policy as Need and Maintain Factors | 170 | ||
| 3.4 Need Factors: Making Early Retirement More Expensive | 171 | ||
| 3.5 Maintain Factors: Increasing Older Workers’ Employability | 172 | ||
| 4 Individual Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 173 | ||
| 5 Workplace Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 177 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 179 | ||
| References | 180 | ||
| 8: From Early Exit to Postponing Pension: How the Dutch Polder Model Shapes Retirement | 186 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 186 | ||
| 2 Context: Developments in Aging and Retirement | 188 | ||
| 2.1 Employment Rate | 188 | ||
| 2.2 The Dutch Welfare State and Pension System | 189 | ||
| 3 Institutional Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Transitions | 190 | ||
| 3.1 Introduction of Early Retirement Pathways | 191 | ||
| 3.2 Reversing the Early Retirement Trend | 193 | ||
| 3.3 The Need to Retire Later | 193 | ||
| 3.4 Maintaining Workers’ Participation | 195 | ||
| 4 Individual Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 196 | ||
| 5 Workplace Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 198 | ||
| 5.1 Workplace Characteristics | 199 | ||
| 5.2 Job Demands or Costs and Job Control or Benefits | 199 | ||
| 5.3 Imbalance between “Have” and “Want” | 200 | ||
| 5.4 Employability-Enhancing Practices | 202 | ||
| 5.5 Employers’ Views of Older Workers | 203 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 204 | ||
| References | 205 | ||
| 9: Retirement Determinants in Austria: An Aging Society but a Hesitant Policymaker!? | 209 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 209 | ||
| 2 Development of the Employment Rate of Older Workers in Austria | 210 | ||
| 3 Institutional Determinants: The Context of Retirement Decisions | 215 | ||
| 3.1 Push Factors | 216 | ||
| 3.2 Pull Factors | 217 | ||
| 3.3 Need Factors | 219 | ||
| 3.4 Keep or Retain Factors | 220 | ||
| 4 Individual Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 221 | ||
| 5 Workplace Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 225 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 227 | ||
| References | 228 | ||
| 10: Employment and Retirement of Older Workers in the UK | 234 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 234 | ||
| 2 Employment Trends | 236 | ||
| 3 Macro- or Institutional-Level Determinants of Retirement | 238 | ||
| 3.1 Push Factors | 238 | ||
| 3.2 Pull Factors | 239 | ||
| 3.3 Stay Factors | 240 | ||
| 3.4 Need Factors | 241 | ||
| 4 Workplace Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 243 | ||
| 5 Micro- or Individual-Level Determinants | 246 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 249 | ||
| References | 250 | ||
| 11: Japan: Determinants of Retirement in a Hyper-Aged Society | 254 | ||
| 1 Introduction: Japan as a “Hyperaged Society” | 254 | ||
| 2 Overview of Older Worker Employment in Japan: Five Characteristics | 256 | ||
| 2.1 Japan’s Older Worker Employment Rate Is High by International Standards | 256 | ||
| 2.2 Japan’s High Older Worker Employment Rates Are Historical | 257 | ||
| 2.3 Gender Gaps in Employment Rates Are Significant and Persistent | 258 | ||
| 2.4 Nonregular Employment Has Been Increasing Steadily among Older Workers | 259 | ||
| 2.5 Japan’s Effective Retirement Age Surpasses the State Pension Age for Both Men and Women, and Is High by OECD Standards | 260 | ||
| 3 Macrolevel Determinants: Employer Policies and Public Policies at a National Level | 261 | ||
| 3.1 Push Factors: Employer Policies of Mandatory Retirement at Age 60 | 261 | ||
| 3.2 Pull Factor: The Generosity of Old Age Public Pension Benefits | 263 | ||
| 3.3 Need Factor: Old Age Public Pension Benefits and Its Reforms | 264 | ||
| 3.4 Maintain Factors: Recent Policy Reforms Regarding Mandatory Retirement | 265 | ||
| 4 Mesolevel Determinants: Workplace Characteristics | 267 | ||
| 4.1 The Presence of Mandatory Retirement Corporate Policies in the Workplace | 268 | ||
| 4.2 Age Criteria Set by Employers to Call for Mandatory Retirement | 270 | ||
| 5 Microlevel Determinants: Individual Characteristics | 273 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 276 | ||
| References | 278 | ||
| 12: The Gendered and Liberal Retirement Regime in Switzerland | 282 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 282 | ||
| 2 Older Workers’ Employment Rate in Switzerland: A Gendered Labor–Retirement Context | 284 | ||
| 3 Liberal Orientation of the Swiss Pension Institution | 288 | ||
| 4 Institutional Determinants of the Retirement Transition: Between Early Retirement and Active Aging | 290 | ||
| 5 Workplace and Individual Characteristics as Determinants of the Retirement Transition | 295 | ||
| 5.1 Workplace Characteristics as Determinants of the Retirement Transition | 295 | ||
| 5.2 Individual Characteristics as Determinants of the Retirement Transition | 296 | ||
| 6 Conclusion and Further Research Topics | 298 | ||
| References | 300 | ||
| 13: The Outdistanced Vanguard: Early Retirement Policy in Denmark as an Obstacle to Progress in Active Aging | 304 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 304 | ||
| 2 Trends in the Employment Rate of Older Workers in Denmark | 306 | ||
| 3 Institutional Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 308 | ||
| 3.1 Pull Factors | 310 | ||
| 3.2 Push Factors | 312 | ||
| 3.3 Stay Factors and Active Aging since 1995 | 313 | ||
| 4 Individual Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 315 | ||
| 5 Workplace Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 318 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 320 | ||
| References | 322 | ||
| 14: Sweden: Steeply Rising Older Workers’ Employment Rates in a Late-Exit Country | 327 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 327 | ||
| 2 The Development of the Employment Rate of Older Workers in Sweden | 328 | ||
| 3 Institutional Determinant Contexts of Retirement Decisions | 331 | ||
| 3.1 Push Factors | 331 | ||
| 3.2 Pull Factors | 333 | ||
| 3.3 Stay Factors | 334 | ||
| 4 Individual Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 337 | ||
| 5 Workplace Characteristics as Determinants of Retirement Decisions | 339 | ||
| 6 Conclusion | 342 | ||
| References | 344 | ||
| 15: The Increasing Heterogeneity of Retirement in the USA: Interactions Between State, Firm, and Individual Determinants of Later-Life Labor Force Withdrawal | 348 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 348 | ||
| 2 Changes in the Labor Force Participation Rate of Older Workers in the USA | 351 | ||
| 2.1 Long-Term Trends in the LFPR and the Changing Retirement Institution | 351 | ||
| 2.2 The Expansion of Early Retirement after 1970 | 353 | ||
| 2.3 Increased Heterogeneity Since the Mid-1990s | 355 | ||
| 3 The Determinants of Heterogeneous Labor Force Withdrawal in the USA | 357 | ||
| 3.1 Macrolevel: State Economic and Old-Age Policies | 357 | ||
| 3.1.1 Push Factors | 358 | ||
| 3.1.2 Pull Factors | 358 | ||
| 3.1.3 Retention Factors | 360 | ||
| 3.2 Mesolevel Determinants: Firm Attributes and Provisions | 362 | ||
| 3.2.1 Employer-Sponsored Pensions | 363 | ||
| 3.2.2 Retiree Health Insurance | 363 | ||
| 3.2.3 Other Human Resource Management Policies | 364 | ||
| 3.3 Microlevel Determinants: Household and Individual Characteristics | 365 | ||
| 3.3.1 Socioeconomic Status | 366 | ||
| 3.3.2 Labor Market Attachment | 367 | ||
| 3.3.3 Health Status | 367 | ||
| 3.4 Family Context | 368 | ||
| 4 Conclusion | 369 | ||
| References | 371 | ||
| 16: Retirement Transitions Under Changing Institutional Conditions: Towards Increasing Inequalities? Comparing Evidence from 13 Countries | 374 | ||
| 1 Introduction | 374 | ||
| 2 Main Country Findings | 376 | ||
| 2.1 Persistent Late Retirement Countries | 378 | ||
| 2.2 Persistent Early Exit Countries | 382 | ||
| 2.3 Reversal Toward Late Retirement | 385 | ||
| 3 Discussion and Outlook | 386 | ||
| References | 389 | ||
| Index | 390 |